Shoshi Bar-Eli, Amos Bar-Eli, Rivka Hillel-Lavian
The paper presents an analysis of sequential and multi-contextual 'metaphoric collages' produced in the framework of an architectural interior design studio. The visual attributes of the 'metaphoric collage' amplify conscious and unconscious personal organizational behaviour as well as personal preferences in design. The paper integrates visual qualitative research methods as well as design process understandings in order to evaluate the use of the 'metaphoric collage' in the process of designing architectural interior space.
As a case study we analysed works of 22 design students of an interior design studio. Their assignment was to design an innovative educational space. Out of a complex design process we examined three 'metaphoric collages'. The collages were integrated in various stages of the process and conducted in sequence: the first one was used to re-frame the design problem and formulate a design assumption (literal), second was used to develop a conceptual visual language (visual), and the third established a spatial concept to be finalized into a design solution (spatial).
Utilizing known and uniquely modified analysis methods, focused mainly but not exclusively on the visual aspects of the collage, we were able to analyse each of the 'metaphoric collages'. A further analysis targeted the continuation of concepts and visual language between the three collages. The results enabled us to formulate new understandings toward methods of using 'metaphoric collages' in sequence. Furthermore, we illuminate some possible uses of 'metaphoric collage' in the context of designing architectural space.
Keywords: architectural education, metaphoric collage, design process, visual qualitative research
1. INTRODUCTION
The aim of this paper is to further understand the experience of architecture culture and society in the field of architectural education. It is a multidisciplinary research focused on two concepts which serve as the basis for this paper, ‘metaphoric collage’ and the ‘architectural design process’. The paper presents a case-study analysis of sequential and multi-contextual 'metaphoric collages' produced in the framework of an architectural design studio, in which design students were engaged in a design process. Collaborative multidisciplinary knowledge is key to this case-study based research. One of the writers (Rivka Hillel-Lavian) is an expert in education, specializing in the field of special need children’s education. She is experienced with qualitative visual research methodology and use of ‘metaphoric collage’ as researcher and educator. Both other writers are architects experienced with educating architecture students. A. Bar-Eli is a practicing architect engaged with the design process, while S. Bar-Eli is a researcher of architectural education, specializing in differences between designers. This collaborative research allowed the development of a unique case-study, conduct it in a controlled environment, and analyse it with qualitative visual research methodology based on knowledge and experience of the researchers' respective fields.
1.1 Metaphors
The term "metaphor" originates in Greek and means "transfer", meaning using one term to shed light on the features of another. Metaphor is not merely a comparison or an exchange between two things, but rather sharing of realms of meaning creating new meaning. This sharing is not only between two words or concepts, but rather, between two sets of words, concepts or beliefs (Vosniadou, 1987). Thinking via metaphors is an integral part of a person's thinking capability and allows for distancing from that which is familiar and observing it as foreign, in order to break through new thinking patterns, thus enabling a discourse that is different from the existing. A metaphor is based on analogy and imagination associations between semantic fields. Being a type of analogous thinking, it facilitates verbal and visual processes in a variety of subject matters in general and in creative processes in particular (Keil, 1986). Metaphors are important and basic mechanism in various thought activities, including concept creation, problem solving, deduction, and explaining systems. Metaphors offer access to different levels of meaning and connect parts together in a coherent and functional whole. Metaphoric thinking is a natural component of largely unconscious human thought processes. Concepts that emerge from our experience are open and flexible. Through metaphors, we understand reality differently and change our behaviour in accordance with this understanding. Metaphoric thinking is most valuable in the domain of creative processes, such as design process or design education (Lakoff and Johnson, 2003).
1.2 Metaphoric collage
A collage is a well-known technique of: “composing a work of art by pasting on a single surface, various materials not normally associated with one another, as newspaper clippings, parts of photographs, theatre tickets, and fragments of an envelope.” [1]. The ‘metaphoric collage’ is a specific form of collage which puts emphasis on using metaphoric images in the collage and their verbal interpretation. The 'metaphoric collage' is commonly used in education and behavioural disciplines as a tool for therapy, analysis, psychological assessment, and a research tool. According to Israeli researchers Zimet-Russo, Avivi, and Gilat the 'metaphoric collage' as a research tool is comprised of three steps as follows: (a) expression using visual means (e.g. photos, drawings, writing etc.) at the same time; (b) written analysis of the visual means by the participant; and (c) dialog between the participant and the researcher with respect to the visual means chosen by the participant and the written analysis (Zimet-Russo, Avivi-Dan, and Gilat 2009). The ‘metaphorical collage’ enables the researcher to expand understanding of the research topic. Moreover, the analysis of participants' written analysis facilitates a broader understanding of the views of the participants. The ‘metaphoric collage’ is a tool with abundant of documented uses and theoretical knowledge. Those range from the educational to the analytical, from the world of children’s education to management enhancement, from the artistic to the business, from an internal reflective to group skills. Its main components, in most general terms, are: the problem or question presented, the data or tools for creation offered, its creation, verbal reflection, and verbal analysis. The ‘metaphoric collage’ is easy to exercise, fun to create, and is based on intuitive attributes that makes it equipped for use by anyone. At the same time its complex attributes bring to the fore conscious and unconscious personal organizational behaviour as well as personal preferences in design.
1.3 The design process
The design process is understood as the way one thinks and makes a design. It can be said that the process of design is made of an analysis phase, a synthesis phase, and evolution through reflection. Some researchers understand the design process as associated with the problem which initiates the process, defining it as a solution to a problem. It is common to refer to design problems as ill-defined, as stated by British design researcher Nigel Cross:
“It is also now widely recognized that design problems are ill-defined, ill-structured, or ‘wicked’… They are not problems for which all the necessary information is, or ever can be, available to the problem-solver. They are therefore not susceptible to exhaustive analysis, and there can never be a guarantee that ‘correct’ solutions can be found for them." (Cross, 1982)
The first step in the problem-solving process is to determine whether a problem actually exists. Subsequently, the problem solver must determine what the nature of the problem is. Therefore, identifying an appropriate problem space among competing options is perhaps the most important part of ill-structured problem solving. The initial phase is the problem formulation phase in which the problem receives an understanding by the designer. This phase has distinct connection to personal preferences of the designer. The evolution of the process is defined further by a methodology and design refinement and solutions which are both verbal and visual (S. Bar-Eli, 2013, A. Bar-Eli, 2017). In their research on creativity and the design process researchers such as Kees Dorst and Nigel Cross claim that: "…defining and framing the design problem is a key aspect of creativity" (Dorst and Cross, 2001, p. 431). In addition, they claimed that the design process is a process of co-evolution between problem and solution, meaning that the process involves constant iteration of analysis, synthesis and evaluation process between design process phases: problem formulation and solution generation (Dorst and Cross, 2001).
1.4 Reflection
One of the key concepts of the design process is the act of reflection. American Learning theorist and philosopher Donald Schön, with his notion of the design process as "reflection in action", introduced a critical modification in the way design teaching and learning is viewed. His ideas, which were presented in his best-known books The Reflective Practitioner (1983) and Educating the Reflective Practitioner (1987), have been seminal in research into design activity. In an interview with John Bennett, Schön discusses the activity of design and speaks about three kinds of reflection: reflection in action, reflection on action and reflection on practice. He states: "Reflection in action is closely related to the experience of surprise. Sometimes, we think about what we are doing in the midst of performing an act. In architectural design the ‘performer’ frequently conducts an experiment in the form of series of drawings combined with talking” (Bennett, 1996, p. 172). In the second type of reflection, reflection on action, the designer thinks back over what has already been done, and a process of re-framing the design problem can take place. In the third kind of reflection, reflection on practice, the designer may surface and criticize tacit understandings that have grown around repetitive experiences of designing. For example, he may become aware of having fallen into an unfortunate pattern of design behaviour, such as "falling in love with an initial design idea…". (Bennett, 1996, p. 172). The reflections and the constant re-framing of issues in the process are marked by the act of 'Surprise', which is a significant element in allowing students to 'move forward'. Schön claims it plays a key pivotal in keeping the designer from a routine behaviour (Schön, 2017).
1.5 The design studio
The design studio still remains, according to many, the core of the architecture curriculum. Its content and methodology are highly varied amongst schools, students and teachers. The studio is an intense course, it reflects not only the study of architectural expertise but also the understanding and engagement with architecture culture and society. The work process in the studio, through which students acquire their designing skills, is founded on project-based education. The studio is a space in which students spend most of their time, often in discussion, but usually working individually. At the beginning of the semester, the instructor gives the students a program – a series of requirements concerning an architectural project. During the course of the semester, each student develops his solution to the given problem in the form of preliminary sketches, drawings and models. At the end of the semester, the student presents his work to his instructor and to others (“the jury”), who critique his work. This description of what occurs in the studio is very general, yet it provides a clear picture of the studio framework (Schön, 1985).
2. CASE STUDY
Prior to generating and analysing the case study, the main focus of the paper, we conducted a preliminary exercise of utilizing ‘metaphoric collage’ in order to validate some of our ideas about its use. The experiment has taken place as a short seminar with graduate students of mixed disciplines. The seminar took place simultaneously and separately in two groups, one led by R. Hillel-Lavian and the other by S. Bar-Eli. This experimentation allowed for the validation of our initial ideas relating to the ‘metaphoric collage’ and was essential for planning the case-study. It allowed the research to explore analysis with students and explore the visual qualitative methodology we applied later on during the main case-study. Prompted by the understandings we gained of using ‘metaphoric collage’ and our experience of the architectural design process, we initiated and conducted a case-study. With the aim to investigate the use of 'metaphoric collage' within an architectural design process. An accommodating environment for this was found in the educational architectural studio. Designers, by nature of their work, are engaged constantly with the visual and the relationship between the visual and the verbal. The use of metaphors, symbols, images, and creating interactions between them is an essential part of the profession and the design process. The studio environment as a framework for experimentation offered favourable conditions: it is confined in time and space, and it is permissible for comparison and analysis. Also, student participants are accustomed in the use of tools such as ‘metaphoric collage’, so it was agreeable, even enthusiastic, to accommodate new and innovative tool in their design process, and it was easy to collect data created, rather abundantly, by the eager participants.
2.1 The sequence of 'metaphoric collages'
This process of architectural design has unique and defined phases which relate and interact with one another. We devised a sequenced use of ‘metaphoric collages’ which integrated into the architectural design process and correlated into its both known and logical phases. The sequenced collages can relate to each other, evolve in sophistication and complexity, and reflect one upon the other. For this purpose, we defined three ‘metaphoric collages’ that were to be conducted throughout the architectural design process. This grew as a response for questions such as how will the ‘metaphoric collage’ evolve from one state to the other? In a sequence each ‘metaphoric collage’ has potential to be different, to involve different issues, to relate to previous collages and other issues considered earlier in the process. When addressing the use of 'metaphoric collage' and its impact on the design process, some of the questions to be raised are: how will it resonate and correlate into the evolving architectural design? What will be the ‘metaphoric collage’ contribution especially in later stages of the process?
Figure 1: Students engaged in creating a 'metaphoric collage' in the studio (source: S. Bar-Eli, 2018)
The aim of the case-study was to associate the sequenced collages into the various phases of the process in such a way that they not only relate to their specific outcomes and sequenced issues but also relate to the process as it unfolds and advances. In order to do this, we assumed the three ‘metaphoric collages’ to fit into three different phases of the process and engage different issues. The first one was used to formulate the problem and generate a design assumption (literal), the second was used to develop the conceptual visual language (visual), and the third to establish the spatial concept to be finalized into a design outcome, hence the proposed solution (spatial).
The first ‘metaphoric collage’ was thought of in classic terminology and was framed to create a design assumption during the initial phase of the studio, in what is known as the problem formulation phase. It was used as intuitive, ideas forming, freedom enhancer, mind storming visual tool. This was related to the beginning of the design process and to the expectations from this phase, that is: to freely raise ideas, create intuitive and unexpected connections, to explore the ‘ill-defined’ and open-ended problem, in an unobstructed, unconfined, manner. This ‘metaphoric collage’, although conducted and defined by visual materials, assumed an important role in creating a literal outcome. It directed itself toward making literal order and assumptions which formulated the problem in a literal way.
The second ‘metaphoric collage’ was connected to the process in the phase in which a visual language for the architectural design is formulated. This is more ambiguous phase, since its boundaries and outcomes are less confined in time and in results. It is conceptual visual language which can be understood as a much more fluid visual outcome. Its unstable and evolves, constantly shifting in meaning and outreach all through the design process. Yet it is an essential phase in which designers translate ideas, concepts, and literal symbolic ideas into abstract visual shapes and form a visual language.
The third ‘metaphoric collage’ aimed toward the main body of the architectural design process in which the problems are defined and refined toward a concrete spatial condition. This spatial development phase is the act of defining: the architectural form, space, program, relation between content and idea, cultural issues, materiality, and how the body is engaged in the space. This phase is characterized by two conditions which are not readily engaged by the ‘metaphoric collage’. First is the use of professional language specific to architecture, such as drafting and the use of defined solutions, the second is the use of three-dimensional material or representations. So, although this phase has rather unwelcoming conditions to the use of ‘metaphoric collage’ we still insisted upon correlating the last ‘metaphoric collage’ into this essential phase in the process.
The issue of reflection and ‘reflection in action’ is inherit into processes, and much so in the architectural design process. This reflection process is both verbal and visual, it constantly frames and re-frames the issues of the design, and it becomes the key characteristic in the design process. In the environment of the educational architecture studio there is another important layer in the form of the reflective process in student-instructor, and instructor group, taking place. The students, engaged in the design process, lack design experience so they relay heavily on the reflective process with the instructor. The analysis of the ‘metaphoric collage’ takes place in two main forms, one is a reflection on students’ own creation and activities and the other is a translation from the visual to the verbal in constant co-evaluation process. This translation is augmented by a structured analysis or via discussion with others, either a group or a moderator\instructor. As we developed the sequenced ‘metaphoric collages’ for the architectural design process we questioned the possibility that an enhanced process of reflection will take place. That it will be more efficient and complex and will result in a boosted level of discourse and value, vital for each student’s design process.
2.2 The design exercise
The design exercise which was our case-study was performed by 22 second year undergraduate interior architecture design students. The assignment given to the students was to redesign an existing high school in the city of Bat-Yam. Throughout the semester there was close collaboration with the high-school’s administration and pupils in order to enhance the understanding and experience of the students. Some of the ‘metaphoric collage’ were discussed and influenced by active participation of the school’s pupils. The brief given to the students was to redesign a selected public space in the school in an innovative approach which will correspond to progressive, current educational pedagogies. The design solution proposed was to encourage the following values: safe environment, pupils involvement with the school and community, and social engagement of the school’s social activities.
3. Methodology
The data collected was created and used by the students as their design process was developed. The research was almost ethnographic in nature, as we were involved with the process and part of it. As such it offered us various engagements with the data, hence, the sequence of ‘metaphoric collages’ and the architectural design process. The data creation and collection process included these stages:
(1) Creation of a collage (the visual means) expressing the participants' ideas.
(2) Verbal explanations written by each participant of its collage.
(3) Reflection: Dialog between instructor and participants about the collage and group dialog, ranging from couples to the whole group.
(4) Analysis conducted by each researcher based on area of expertise
(5) Comparative analysis of the visual and verbal data collected.
This mutual, multi-disciplinary analysis, was conducted several times throughout the semester. The collection of data and its analysis gave less importance to the systematic collection and categorization and more emphasis on the intuitive reflections of the researchers. While this resulted in less specific conclusions it allowed openness of reflections and suggestive understandings of the process. It allowed the combination of multi-disciplinary approach to flourish and gave room to, sometimes conflicting ideas to co-exist. The qualitative visual research methodology allowed us to engage with the students, and students works on various levels, and at different times in relation to the sequence of collages and to the correlative advances in the architectural design process.
4. FINDINGS
The first ‘metaphoric collage’ task was presented to the students prior to any other assignment in the course. Students were presented with various visual material, at this point students did not have their own material, so it was vital to supply them with sufficient variety of visual stimuli. Subsequently they were encouraged to draw freely images from their imagination in order to compensate any lack of specific images they require. Students were asked to create a collage formed from images of personal metaphors or any other metaphoric relationship they assume as long as it is visual. They were asked to create this ‘metaphoric collage’ as a representation of their attitude and recollection of the experience of being a pupil in high school. At this point they were given no other information toward what the design assignment is, the nature of the site, or to the fact that this ‘metaphoric collage’ is part of a sequence. Following the creation of the visual part of the ‘metaphoric collage’ they were asked to discuss its meaning, verbalizing (speaking out loud) their ideas and propositions. They did this in small groups and also the whole group together. This ‘metaphoric collage’ was used by the students to form a verbal design assumption as a response to a general concept.
The results of this ‘metaphoric collage’, both visual and verbal, were frequently referred back-to throughout the design process. It assumed a position of concept to the design project, and the student’s problem formulation core assumptions. We noticed that although this ‘metaphoric collage’ has remained intact all throughout the semester and actually almost didn’t evolve at all. It’s verbal concepts, once formulated verbally, were set and remained constant. On the other hand, it was an invaluable tool and experience for the sequenced part of the ‘metaphoric collages’ which followed. It strengthened the student's ability to communicate their ideas to instructors, fellow students, and others. It defined their skilled use of reflection and eased the process of integrating visual stimuli from the ‘metaphoric collages’ into the evolving design project.
The second ‘metaphoric collage’ was created with materials which were collected and created by each student. Students received information regarding all variables of the design problem. Students met with selected high school pupils which they interviewed and created a short film with the pupil on the school’s site. This stage, with emphasis on the short video, was used as bases for the second ‘metaphoric collage’. Students were explained that the purpose of this collage is to create a visual/conceptual/abstract design language which will serve as basis for their design during the process.
Figure 2: A student's (Shir Maman) 2nd stage 'metaphoric collage' (source: S. Bar-Eli. 2018).
This collage spanned over a two weeks period. It evolved and changed as some students understood it as a short sequence or independent process within the design process. Some students lost track of their earlier assumptions while others revised and elaborated both first and second collages as they created visual and verbal connections between the two. This was welcomed by us as being an essential co-evaluation process within the architectural design process. Three points surfaced in relation to this collage. First the amount of verbal communication generated about the creation and meaning of the collages was a direct influence of the tools assumed by the first collage. Second is the level of rich and complex design material created was also due to the benefits of the ‘metaphoric collage’. Lastly the use of reflective process between the verbal and the visual has proved very fruitful for most students. They testified for feeling at ease at the process of translating metaphors, both their own and others, into their design language, and understanding them in a faster and intuitive way, making overall their process more manageable and creative.
The third ‘metaphoric collage’ was rather unusual in the sense that it was created in an advanced stage of the architectural design process. At this stage of the process, project and solution are much more defined. Architectural professional language is leading and three-dimensional forms and representations are called for. We asked the students to create conceptual models that represent forms, space, and materiality. Unlike regular models, common in the architectural design process, we aimed for models that imitated the same conceptual thinking we assumed during the first two ‘metaphoric collages’. The students used the previous collages and translated them to forms and materials. During this creative process they reflected constantly on previous materials and used extensively the translation from the visual to the verbal in a constant back and forth movement.
In this third ‘metaphoric collage’ we allowed the students to widen the definition of the collage to better suit individual differences established in their projects. Although all students relied heavily on previous materials, verbal translation, and reflections, not all creative three-dimensional work done in this part could be understood as a ‘metaphoric collage’. During discussions we came to recognize the difficulties of the rather undefined results coming from the ‘metaphoric collage’ at this stage. On the other hand, there were many indications for the ability to discuss the work among the class, to analyse the work, its meaning, and progress, much more extensively than expected. The sequential process, now completing its full cycle, generated overall positive response from the students as they acknowledged the relationship to early ideas and how the sequenced use of ‘metaphoric collages’ assisted in evolving their project from problem formulation to solution generation, or in their own words from a mere intuitive metaphor to a justified, innovative, functional solution.
5. DISCUSSION
The reality of society and culture in the 21st century is marked by tendencies of flatness and complexity. These conflicting phenomena are augmented by the rapid advances in technology and globalization. As is marked by several researchers of contemporary architectural education this cultural reality is very much delivered and understood via the image, the visual rather than the haptic. The influence and meaning upon the architectural design process are central for contemporary architecture education (Ockman, 2012). The visual culture we experience and consume should be understood through research tools which arise from this condition. In which case the visual qualitative research is highly relevant toward better understanding of current architectural culture and society (Rose, 2012).
Reflecting on the case-study and process, we came up with some understandings and questions. We registered many benefits of the constructed methodological use of sequenced ‘metaphoric collages’ upon the architectural design process. It assisted creativity, generated design solutions, and prompted evolution of ideas. The constant reflections and translation from the verbal to the visual stimulated discussion, sharing of knowledge, and overall encouraged a much-improved process. We strongly believe that it provided the students with improved design skills and a tool of great visual stimuli which reflected throughout their design process. From the reflective writings of the students on the entire process and the relationship between the collage and the end result of the studio process, we realized that they were surprised at the role that the collage played in influencing the process.
REFERENCES
Bar-Eli, A. (2017). On Beginnings in Design Studio Teaching: A Poetic Approach. International Journal of Arts & Sciences, 10(1), 551–563.
Bar-Eli, S. (2013). Sketching Profiles: Awareness to Individual Differences in Sketching as a Means of Enhancing Design Solution Development. Design Studies, 34(4), 472–493.
Cross, N. (1982). Designerly ways of knowing. Design Studies, 3(4), 221–227.
Dorst, K. & Cross, N. (2001). Creativity in the Design Process: Co-Evolution of Problem–Solution. Design Studies, 22(5), 425–437.
Keil, F. (1986). Conceptual Domains and the Acquisition of Metaphor. Cognitive Development, 1(1), 73–96.
Lakoff, G. & Johnson, M. (2003). Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Ockman, J. ed. (2012). Architecture School: Three Centuries of Educating Architects in North America. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Rose, G. (2012). Visual Methodologies, (3rd ed.). London, UK: Sage.
Russo-Zimet, G. & Segel, S. (2014). The Concept of Happiness as Conveyed in Visual Representations: Analysis of the Work of Early Childhood Educators. Journal of Education and Training Studies, 2(4), 97–107.
Schön, D. (1985). The Design Studio. London: RIBA Publication Ltd.
Schön, D. (2017). The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action. London: Routledge.
Schön, D. & Bennett, J. (1996). Reflective Conversation with Materials. Bringing Design to Software (pp. 171–189). ACM, conference paper.
Vosniadou, S. (1987). Children and Metaphors. Child Development, 870–885.
WEB REFERENCES http://www.dictionary.com/browse/collage (Last Access 15.06.2018)
